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What Is Dyslexia: 1984 Digest.
Dyslexia is a term
that has been loosely applied to reading disabilities. Specific definitions
for dyslexia vary with disciplines. Those in medicine define dyslexia as a
condition resulting from neurological, maturational, and genetic causes,
while those in psychology relate dyslexia on the basis of the specific
reading problems evidenced and give no reference to causation. All
disciplines would probably agree that dyslexia is evidenced by persons of
otherwise normal intellectual capacity who have not learned to read despite
exposure to adequate instruction.
HOW IS
DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSED?
The diagnosis of
dyslexia usually begins with an awareness by parents or teachers that a
problem in reading exists. A physician is often the first diagnostician to
explore the nature of the difficulty. The medical practitioner should
investigate the cause of the reading problem by conducting a complete
physical examination and obtaining a comprehensive health history. If
indicated, the child should be referred for a neurological examination. If
dyslexia is suspected, the physician should refer the child for further
evaluation and treatment by a specialist in psychoeducational diagnosis.
The major purpose of
the diagnostic process is to isolate the specific difficulties associated
with dyslexia and to suggest appropriate educational intervention. Usually
the diagnostician will employ a battery of assessment instruments that
explore the relationship of specific reading problems to the intellectual,
achievement, perceptual, motoric, linguistic, and adaptive capabilities of
the individual. Based on the results, an intervention plan can be
implemented by a special educator or remedial reading teacher trained in
specialized reading techniques. No one remedial reading method works for all
reading disabled students. Therefore it is important that the teacher have
mastery of many different techniques.
WHAT ARE
SOME OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF DYSLEXIA?
An individual is
identified as dyslexic when a significant discrepancy exists between
intellectual ability and reading performance without an apparent physical,
emotional, or cultural cause. Common findings in the history include, but
are not limited to: (1) family history of reading problems; (2) a
predominant occurrence in males (males to females 8:1); (3) an average or
above average IQ and, not uncommonly, a proficiency in math: (4) no
enjoyment of reading as a leisure activity; (5) problems of letter and word
reversal; (6) developmental history of problems in coordination and
left/right dominance; (7) poor visual memory for language symobols; (8)
auditory language difficulties in word finding, fluency, meaning, or
sequence; (9) difficulty transferring information from what is heard to what
is seen and vice versa.
Specific reading
problems associated with dyslexia include difficulty in pronouncing new
words, difficulty distinguishing similarities and differences in words (no
for on), and difficulty discriminating differences in letter sound (pin,
pen). Other problems may include reversal of words and letters,
disorganization of word order, poor reading comprehension, and difficulty
applying what has been read to social or learning situations.
WHAT FACTORS
CONTRIBUTE TO DYSLEXIA?
Ocular Problems
Several reliable
studies (Helveston 1969; Blika 1982; Keys 1982; Hiatt 1984) have found that
dyslexic individuals have no greater incidence of eye problems than do
individuals with normal reading ability. Such parameters as visual acuity,
stereo acuity, ocular alignment and motility, fusion status (break point
amplitude), and refractive error have not been shown to be significantly
different in poor versus normal readers. Individuals with reading problems
should, however, have a careful eye examination as part of an overall
medical examination. There is no scientific evidence that visual training
(including eye muscle exercises, ocular tracking or pursuit exercises, or
glasses with bifocals or prisms) leads to significant improvement in the
performance of dyslexic individuals.
Language
Problems
According to Mattis
(1978), the primary contributing factor to dyslexia is an auditory language
deficit. Approximately 86% of the individuals identified as dyslexic
evidence an auditory language disorder that prevents the individual from
linking the spoken form of a word with its written equivalent. In light of
this, any individual with reading problems should have a careful evaluation
of his or her language capabilities and where indicated, appropriate speech
and language intervention should be provided.
Visuo-Spatial-Motor
Problems
In contrast to
language problems, visuo-spatial-motor factors of dyslexia appear less
frequently (Robinson and Schwartz 1973). Approximately 5% of the individuals
identified as dyslexic have a visuo-spatial-motor problem that interferes
with sequential organization, scanning, and the perception of temporal and
spatial cues. Although visuo-spatial-motor confusion is common in young
children who are just learning to read, these problems do not tend to
account for severe and persistent reading difficulties unless the child has
missed so much basic reading instruction that he cannot get caught up.
Assessment of visual, spatial, and motor capacities should be included in
the diagnosis of any coordination or orientation disorder; however, there is
no scientific evidence that interventions such as neurological and sensory
organizational training, laterality training, dominance training, balance
beam, or reflex inhibition will significantly accelerate reading
performance.
Other Factors
The importance of
general intelligence in learning to read has been examined and shown to be a
critical factor in both reading and language abilities. Investigations of
the role of dominance in handedness, eyedness, and mixed laterality have
produced no consistent conclusions. Studies investigating low birth weight,
EEG abnormalities, temperamental attributes, attention deficit disorders,
birth order, food additives, and chemical allergies have yielded mixed
results. What is clear is that a wide range of factors can be associated
with reading difficulties but that these factors work differently in
different children. There is no simple formula for diagnosing and treating a
dyslexic child. Each one requires his or her own individual program.
FOR MORE
INFORMATION
Benton, A. L., and
D. Pearl. DYSLEXIA. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.
Blika, S. "Opthalmological
Findings in Pupils of a Primary School with Particular Reference to Reading
Difficulties." ACTA OPTHALMOLOGICA 60 (1982):927-934.
Helveston, E. M.
"Editorial." THE SIGHT SAVING REVIEW 39 (1969):1.
Hiatt, R. L.
"Reading Problems and the Opthalmologist." ANNALS OF OPTHALMOLOGY 16
(1984):116-122.
Keys, M. P. READING
DISABILITIES. AMERICAN ACADEMY OF OPTHALMOLOGY INSTRUCTION COURSE #117
(1982).
Mattis, S. "Dyslexia
Syndromes: A Working Hypothesis." In DYSLEXIA, edited by A. L. Benton and D.
Pearl. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.
Robinson, M. E., and
L. B. Schwartz. "Visuo-motor Skills and Reading Ability: A Longitudinal
Study." DEVELOPMENTAL MEDICINE AND CHILD NEUROLOGY 15 (1973):281-286.
Rourke, B. P.
"Neuropsychological Research in Reading Retardation, A Review. In DYSLEXIA,
edited by A.L. Benton and D. Pearl. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.
This Digest was
prepared for the ERIC Clearinghouse on Handicapped and Gifted Children,
1984.
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This publication was
prepared with funding from the Office of Educational Research and
Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, under OERI contract. The opinions
expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the positions or
policies of OERI or the Department of Education.
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Title: What Is
Dyslexia: 1984 Digest.
Document Type: Guides---Non-Classroom Use (055); Information Analyses---ERIC
Information Analysis Products (IAPs) (071); Information Analyses---ERIC
Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073);
Target Audience: Teachers, Practitioners
Available From: ERIC Clearinghouse on Handicapped and Gifted Children, 1920
Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091 (one free copy).
Descriptors: Dyslexia, Etiology, Reading Difficulties, Student
Characteristics
Identifiers: ERIC Digests
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